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MODULE R14
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research is a generic term for investigative
methodologies described as ethnographic, naturalistic, anthropological, field, or
participant observer research. It emphasizes the importance of looking at variables in the
natural setting in which they are found. Interaction between variables is important.
Detailed data is gathered through open ended questions that provide direct quotations. The
interviewer is an integral part of the investigation (Jacob, 1988). This differs from
quantitative research which attempts to gather data by objective methods to provide
information about relations, comparisons, and predictions and attempts to remove the
investigator from the investigation (Smith, 1983).
Characteristics
Purpose: Understanding - Seeks to understand people’s
interpretations.
Reality: Dynamic - Reality changes with changes in people’s
perceptions.
Viewpoint: Insider - Reality is what people perceive it to be.
Values: Value bound - Values will have an impact and should be
understood and taken into account when conducting and reporting research.
Focus: Holistic - A total or complete picture is sought.
Orientation: Discovery - Theories and hypotheses are evolved from
data as collected.
Data: Subjective - Data are perceptions of the people in the
environment.
Instrumentation: Human - The human person is the primary collection
instrument.
Conditions: Naturalistic - Investigations are conducted under
natural conditions.
Results: Valid - The focus is on design and procedures to gain
"real," "rich," and "deep" data.
Advantages
 | Produces more in-depth, comprehensive information. |
| Uses subjective information and participant observation to describe the context, or
natural setting, of the variables under consideration, as well as the interactions of the
different variables in the context. It seeks a wide understanding of the entire situation. |
Disadvantages
| The very subjectivity of the inquiry leads to difficulties in establishing the
reliability and validity of the approaches and information. |
| It is very difficult to prevent or detect researcher induced bias. |
| Its scope is limited due to the in-depth, comprehensive data gathering approaches
required. |
Holistic Description
When conducting qualitative research, the investigator seeks to gain a
total or complete picture. According to Stainback and Stainback (1988), a holistic
description of events, procedures, and philosophies occurring in natural settings is often
needed to make accurate situational decisions. This differs from quantitative research in
which selected, pre-defined variables are studied.
Corroboration
The purpose of corroboration is not to confirm whether
people’s perceptions are accurate or true reflections of a situation but rather to
ensure that the research findings accurately reflect people’s perceptions, whatever
they may be. The purpose of corroboration is to help researchers increase their
understanding of the probability that their findings will be seen as credible or worthy of
consideration by others (Stainback & Stainback, 1988).
Triangulation
One process involved in corroboration is triangulation. Denzin
(1978) has identified several types of triangulation. One type involves the convergence of
multiple data sources. Another type is methodological triangulation, which involves the
convergence of data from multiple data collection sources. A third triangulation procedure
is investigator triangulation, in which multiple researchers are involved in an
investigation. Related to investigator triangulation is researcher-participant
corroboration, which has also been referred to as cross-examination.
Other procedures can be used to improve understanding and/or the
credibility of a study. These include research or inquiry audit, peer debriefing, and the
seeking of negative cases in the field that might disconfirm interpretations.
Participant Observation
| Systematically seeks out and organizes data concerning what is being studied based on a
social science theory and methodology rather than focusing on achieving a situationally
defined goal. |
| Keeps detailed records of what occurs, including those things characteristically taken
for granted. |
| Periodically detaches self from the situation to review records from the neutral
position of a social scientist. |
| Constantly monitors observations and records for evidence of personal bias or prejudice. |
Five Types of Participant Observation
| External Participation constitutes the lowest degree of involvement in observation.
This type of observation can be done by observing situations on television or videotape. |
| Passive Participation means the researcher is present at the scene of action but
does not interact or participate. The researcher finds an observation post and assumes the
role of a bystander or spectator. |
| Balanced Participation means that the researcher maintains a balance between being
an insider and being an outsider. The researcher observes and participates in some
activities, but does not participate fully in all activities. |
| Active Participation means that the researcher generally does what others in the
setting do. While beginning with observation to learn the rules, as they are learned the
researcher becomes actively engaged in the activities of the setting. |
| Total Participation means the researcher is a natural participant. This is the
highest level of involvement and usually comes about when the researcher studies something
in which he or she is already a natural participant. |
Interviewing
| The researcher should control his reactions. The purpose of the interview is to find out
what views people hold; their views should be unbiased by evaluative responses on the
researcher’s part. |
| The researcher should choose an interview environment and conditions in which the
participants feel comfortable, secure, and at ease enough to speak openly about their
point of view. |
| The researcher should avoid presenting "yes" or "no" questions which
tend to stifle detail. |
| The researcher should be flexible in his or her approach to the informants. |
| Group interviews can be useful, particularly in initial interviews. |
| The researcher should consider to what degree the interview questioning is
"recursive." As applied to interviewing, what has been said in an interview is
used to determine or define further questioning. |
Case Study
Case studies are detailed investigations of individuals, groups,
institutions or other social units. The researcher conducting a case study attempts to
analyze the variables relevant to the subject under study (Polit and Hungler, 1983). The
principle difference between case studies and other research studies is that the focus of
attention is the individual case and not the whole population of cases. Most studies
search for what is common and pervasive. However, in the case study, the focus may not be
on generalization but on understanding the particulars of that case in its complexity. A
case study focuses on a bounded system, usually under natural conditions, so that the
system can be understood in its own habitat (Stake, 1988).
Maintaining The Validity Of Qualitative Research
| Be a listener. The subject(s) of qualitative research should provide the majority of
the research input. It is the researcher’s task to properly interpret the responses
of the subject(s). |
| Record accurately. All records should be maintained in the form of detailed notes or
electronic recordings. These records should also be developed during rather than after the
data gathering session. |
| Initiate writing early. It is suggested that the researcher make a rough draft of
the study before ever going into the field to collect data. This allows a record to be
made when needed. The researcher is more prepared now to focus the data gathering phase on
that information that will meet the specific identified needs of the project. |
| Include the primary data in the final report. The inclusion of primary data in the
final report allows the reader to see exactly the basis upon which the researcher’s
conclusions were made. In short, it is better to include too much detail than too little. |
| Include all data in the final report. The researcher should not leave out pieces of
information from the final report because she/he cannot interpret that data. In these
cases, the reader should be allowed to develop his/her conclusions. |
| Be candid. The researcher should not spend too much time attempting to keep her/his
own feelings and personal reactions out of the study. If there is relevance in the
researcher’s feelings to the matter at hand, these feelings should be revealed. |
| Seek feedback. The researcher should allow others to critique the research
manuscript following the developmental process. Professional colleagues and research
subjects should be included in this process to ensure that information is reported
accurately and completely. |
| Attempt to achieve balance. The researcher should attempt to achieve a balance
between perceived importance and actual importance. Often, the information reveals a
difference in anticipated and real areas of study significance. |
| Write accurately. Incorrect grammar, misspelled words, statement inconsistency, etc.
jeopardize the validity of an otherwise good study. |
Wolcott, H.R. (1990). Qualitative inquiry in education: The
continuing debate.
Assessment of Trustworthiness
Researchers need alternative models appropriate to qualitative designs
to ensure rigor without sacrificing the relevance of qualitative research. Guba’s
model describes four general criteria for evaluation of research and then defines each
from both a quantitative and qualitative perspective.
Criterion |
Qualitative
Approach |
Quantitative
Approach |
Truth
value |
Credibility |
Internal
Validity |
Applicability |
Transferability |
External
Validity |
Consistency |
Dependability |
Reliability |
Neutrality |
Confirmability |
Objectivity |
Strategies With Which to Establish Trustworthiness
Strategy |
Criteria |
Credibility |
Prolonged
and varied field experience |
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Time
sampling |
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Reflexivity
(field journal) |
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Triangulation |
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Member
checking |
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Peer
examination |
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Interview
technique |
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Establishing
authority of researcher |
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Structural
coherence |
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Referential
adequacy |
Transferability |
Nominated
sample |
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Comparison
of sample to demographic data |
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Time
sample |
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Dense
description |
Dependability |
Dependability
audit |
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Dense
description of research methods |
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Stepwise
replication |
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Triangulation |
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Peer
examination |
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Code-recode
procedure |
Confirmability |
Confirmability
audit |
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Triangulation |
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Reflexivity |
Krefting, L. (1991). Rigor in qualitative research: The assessment of
trustworthiness. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 45(3),
214-222.
Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
Point of Comparisons
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Qualitative Research
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Quantitative Research
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Focus of research
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Quality (nature, essence)
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Quantity (how much, how many)
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Philosophical roots
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Phenomenology, symbolic interaction
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Positivism, logical empiricism
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Associated phrases
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Fieldwork, ethnographic, naturalistic,
grounded, subjective
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Experimental, empirical, statistical
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Goal of investigation
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Understanding, description, discovery,
hypothesis generating
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Prediction, control, description,
confirmation, hypothesis testing
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Design characteristics
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Flexible, evolving, emergent
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Predetermined, structured
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Setting
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Natural, familiar
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Unfamiliar, artificial
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Sample
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Small, non-random, theoretical
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Large, random, representative
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Data collection
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Researcher as primary instrument, interviews,
observations
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Inanimate instruments (scales, tests, surveys,
questionnaires, computers)
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Mode of analysis
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Inductive (by researcher)
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Deductive (by statistical methods)
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Findings
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Comprehensive, holistic, expansive
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Precise, narrow, reductionist
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Merriam, S.B. (1988). Case study research in education: A
qualitative approach. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 18.
SELF ASSESSMENT
1. Briefly define and describe qualitative research.
2. List two advantages of qualitative research.
3. List three disadvantages of qualitative research.
4. Define holistic description.
5. Define corroboration.
6. Define triangulation.
7. List the five types of participant observation.
8. Define case study.
9. List the methods of maintaining validity of qualitative research.
10. List the four criteria for evaluation of qualitative research.
11. List ways to establish trustworthiness for each strategy in
Guba’s model.
12. List twelve comparisons between qualitative and quantitative
research.
        
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