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MODULE R4
WRITING THE INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER
Selecting a Research Area
When selecting a research problem area, the brainstorming approach
should be used first, followed by evaluation and selection. In the brainstorming phase you
should try to search out all possibilities, look as broadly as possible, and try to
suppress biases and preconceived notions as much as possible. After searching as broad a
background as possible in the problem area, you should then start evaluating the
information you have gathered, sorting and organizing it. As you begin narrowing your
problem area, there are several pertinent questions you should ask. These questions are
addressed in the following sections: problem, data, researcher, procedures and methods,
and resources.
Problem Questions
Is the problem significant? Has the problem been studied before? What
were the results? Can someone else claim the problem definition and its solution? Is the
problem broad enough for a significant study to be completed, yet narrow enough to be able
to reach a conclusion and solution? Is the terminology used in the problem formulation
specific, understandable and clearly stated? Is the problem clearly related to prior
studies? Will the solution to the problem have a significant educational impact? Can the
problem be solved through the process of educational research?
Data Questions
Are the needed data readily available and accessible? What sources of
data are needed? Does the data already exist for the basis of a solution to the problem or
will new information be needed? Do valid and reliable data-gathering devices exist, and
are they readily available?
Researcher Questions
What is the interest level of the researcher to the problem topic? Is
the motivation high enough to complete the project? Is the topic within the researcher's
capabilities? Does the researcher have the knowledge and skills needed concerning the
problem area to conduct the research and interpret the findings? Is the researcher
determined and aggressive enough to pursue the study even when faced with difficulties?
Procedures and Methods Questions
What procedural techniques are available for use? Does literature exist
that can be reviewed to build a theoretical framework and background as a basis for the
study? Can procedures be developed or adopted to sufficiently conduct the study and allow
for replication by other researchers? Will the methodology allow for the collection of the
data needed to solve the problem? Does the method chosen allow for collection of the
maximum amount of data with the least amount of effort? Where will the research be
conducted? How many subjects are needed; where and how can they be reached?
Resource Questions
Are acceptable resources available and accessible? Is the cooperation
of others necessary in conducting this research? Are these relationships already in
existence or do they need to be made? Is the sponsorship or the research readily
available? How much will the study and research cost and are the financial resources
available and accessible? How long will it take to complete the study? What equipment may
be necessary? What working conditions will exist? What, if any, risks will be involved in
conducting the study?
Developing the Title
After you have decided on an area of interest for your research study,
your next step is to clearly and concisely develop the title. Titles are
usually stated as a declarative sentence or phrase. Usually "A Study of" is
omitted from the title to aid in conciseness. The journalism questions Who?, What?, When?
and Where? are helpful in determining when enough information has been included.
Examples of Title
 | A Comparison of Selected Characteristics of 1968 and 1969 Vocational Agriculture
Graduates from Welfare and Non-Welfare Families of Adair County, Oklahoma. |
| Academic Success Patterns of Native and Transfer Students in Selected Associate Degree
Technology Programs at Oklahoma State University. |
| The Influence of Industrial Arts Experience on the Vocational Knowledge of Students in
the Area Vocational Technical Schools in Oklahoma. |
Defining the Problem
In establishing the background of the problem for your study, sometimes
the funnel approach is helpful. At the beginning a brief, broad overview is perhaps
helpful to establish the setting of the problem. This leads to the need for the study as
indicated by the factors in the setting. The need can then be narrowed somewhat into the
true importance of the study. If the above steps have been followed, they almost establish
the format of deductive reasoning thereby establishing the rationale of the study. Once
the rationale is established, the finest point of our funnel approach is drawn out by
adding the usefulness. As any good pragmatist knows, a study must have utilitarian value
to education, a state agency, a college department, teachers, or some other group. The
case is then made for the study which leads us to a concise statement of the problem. This
approach to establishing the background really encompasses the first two steps of the
scientific method. Literature sources should be cited liberally to verify statements and
information. This helps establish the theoretical construct or foundation of the study.
THE FUNNEL APPROACH TO PROBLEM DEVELOPMENT
A broad overview of the background and setting of the problem lays the
groundwork for the need for the study which is established by relating
factors creating the problem. The importance of the study
is signified by indicating theoretical value, groups, and
people affected which leads to the overall reasons
for the study called rationale. This is the basis
for usefulness nationally, statewide, and
locally with various groups.
The problem statement should summarize in a few words why
the study is being done. Care should be exercised at this point to ensure that the problem
is within the capability of the researcher and can be accomplished with the resources
available. In other words, is the scope of the study realistic? Careful attention should
be directed at this point to ensure that the title and the problem statement agree. One
problem plaguing many studies is the lack of consistency between the title, problem,
purpose, review of literature, findings, and conclusions. All components must agree as to
direction and guide the reader from the problem through its solution.
Examples Of Problem Statement
| Because of the rising multiplicity and complexity of discipline problems in secondary
schools, a study of personality characteristics was deemed timely. In addition, the
limited number of studies in this area have indicated the need for further research in
correlating personality characteristics and the history of behavioral problems in the
classroom. This study will be of value in assisting students in their attempts to adjust
to school regimen and requirements. This information will be valuable as a reference for
administrators, counselors, and teachers working with high school students. |
| In 1968, Oklahoma vocational agriculture teachers adopted a Basic Core Curriculum Guide
outlining four years of instruction in vocational agriculture. From this basic core, units
of instruction have been developed for vocational agriculture I to cover six sections:
Careers and Orientation, Leadership, Supervised Farm Training, Animal Science, Plant and
Soil Science, and Agricultural Mechanics. The instructional units are designed to account
for sixty percent of an instructor's time in teaching vocational agriculture. The
remaining forty percent is left to the individual instructor in order for him to have
freedom to use his own initiative in making content selection compatible with the demands
of his local community. Additional units of instruction for vocational agriculture II,
III, and IV will eventually be developed in keeping with the established Basic Core
Curriculum Guide. Plans in effect now call for completion of these units within the next
two to four years using the format developed and used in compiling instruction for
Vocational Agriculture I. The present study was needed to determine the acceptance of the
Basic Core Curriculum for Vocational Agriculture I, and to determine if the curriculum for
Vocational Agriculture II, III, and IV should be developed using the same approach as in
Vocational Agriculture I. |
| An individual serving as a Volunteer Adult 4-H Leader has to have certain skills to
properly perform their duties. The Professional Extension Worker has the responsibility to
provide the training and supervision needed for these leaders to properly perform their
duties. In order for a training program to be conducted for the leaders, the training
skills needed by the leaders must be identified. These skills must also be ranked in order
of importance to establish priorities for the training to be conducted. For these
priorities of training to be established they must be identified by both of the two groups
and ranked according to importance as perceived by the two groups. |
| In the fall semester of 1970 Tulsa Junior College first opened its doors offering
various curriculums. The attrition rate in engineering technology for the first year was
extremely high, approximately 40%. The problem was the need to determine whether or not
the existing information that is available for all entering freshmen in Oklahoma, the
American College Test (ACT) score and the level of mathematics completed prior to
enrollment in the program could be used as predictors of success in engineering technology
with an overall purpose being more realistic counseling of potential enrollees. |
Establishing the Purpose
Up to this point, we have been establishing the problem or the reasons
why the study needed to be done. With the statement of the purpose we clearly indicate
what we intend to do about the problem through our study. It should be a clear, concise,
overall goal statement giving direction to action. This will be broken down into specific
indicators of direction in the next section as objectives, questions, or hypotheses.
Examples Of Purpose
| The purpose of this study was to collect certain personality characteristics and to test
for a correlation between these selected personality characteristics and a good or bad
disciplinary record. |
| The purpose of this study was to examine the academic success patterns of two groups of
students in the School of Technology: native and transfer. |
| The purpose of this study was to determine the value of the Basic Core Curriculum for
Vocational Agriculture I, the extent of its use and the acceptance of it as an approach in
curriculum development. |
Objectives, Questions, and Hypotheses
Specific direction is given to the study through the objectives,
questions, or hypotheses. The type of study being done and your personal preference
determine which type to use. Descriptive studies lend themselves well to either objectives
or questions. Experimental studies are most effectively served by hypotheses, although in
some cases objectives or questions are also used. Survey studies probably are best served
by questions. You should determine which seem to give direction to your study best and use
them.
Objectives should be written in measurable terms which can easily be
used to determine the achievement of those objectives. Questions should be asked in such a
way that the answers will adequately achieve the purpose. Hypotheses should be stated in
the null (no difference) form for statistical testing and should reflect the positive or
negative expectations of the researcher when used as research hypotheses. In all cases,
they must be testable.
If the objectives, questions, or hypotheses achieve the purpose, then
they will also solve the problem provided that the problem and purpose are in agreement.
The review of literature and the writer’s experience, along with counsel of advisors,
should provide the background for the development of the objectives, questions, or
hypotheses. The development of the purpose and objectives, questions, or hypotheses really
represents the third step in the scientific method - suggesting solutions to the problem
developed in such a way to allow testing.
Examples Of Objectives
| To accomplish the purpose, the following objectives had to be attained: (l) to determine
if the basic core curriculum is adequate for teaching today's agriculture programs, (2) to
determine the extent that the basic core curriculum is being used, (3) to determine if
more or less information should be included in order to teach the specific lessons, (4) to
determine if this approach in curriculum development is taking any initiative away from
the teacher, (5) to determine if the basic core curriculum can be adapted to each
vocational agriculture teacher’s local community, (6) to determine if a need exists
for the continuation of this kind of curriculum development in vocational agriculture II,
III, and IV. |
| The objectives of this study were to: (l) To identify and rank according to importance
selected aspects of training skills needed by 4-H Leaders in properly performing their
duties as perceived by these leaders. (2) To identify and rank according to importance
selected aspects of training skills needed by 4-H Leaders in properly performing their
duties as perceived by Professional Extension Workers. (3) To compare findings to discover
significant differences which may exist between perceptions held by the two groups. (4) To
determine what kind of leader training programs are presently being provided in the eight
county area in relation to perceived needs of the two groups. |
Examples Of Research Questions
| Will students who are informed of the specific objectives of a unit of instruction
stated in behavioral terms achieve at a higher level on a post test and a retention test
than students who are not so informed? |
| What measurable criteria are appropriate for determining quality and effectiveness of
programs of vocational-technical education participated in by adults? |
Examples Of Statistical Hypotheses
| There is no significant relationship between achievement via conformity and history of
behavior problems in school. |
| There will be no significant difference between the cumulative first four
semesters’ grade point average between native and transfer students in technology
courses completed after entering the School of Technology. |
| There is no significant relationship between student recall and prior exposure to
behavioral objectives contained in a unit of instruction. |
Examples Of Research Hypotheses
| There is a significant relationship between selected personality characteristics and a
history of behavior problems in school. |
| The native students will have significantly greater academic success in technology
courses completed after entering the School of Technology than will transfer students. |
| Student exposure to behavioral objectives prior to presentation of a unit of instruction
will significantly aid student recall as measured by a criterion test given immediately
following the instruction. |
Assumptions, Limitations, Definitions, and Scope
Assumptions may be needed to indicate ideas, theories, or facts which
must be considered valid in order to conduct the study. They should be well recognized as
valid or have other empirical bases to establish their acceptance.
Example Of Assumptions
| For the purposes of this study, the following assumptions were accepted by the
investigator: |
| That teachers could provide accurate evaluations of the Basic Core Curriculum for
Vocational Agriculture I. |
| That the responses by the teachers were honest expressions of their opinions. |
Limitations are factors which are recognized to exist which may affect
the outcome of the study over which the researcher has no control. These should not be
confused with the scope or size of the study, number of participants, etc., over which the
researcher does have control.
Examples Of Limitations
| Possible potential intervening variables include the inability to assign an absolute
sequence of mathematics courses due to the lack of consistent terminology in the names and
variations of coursework for classes of the same name in different schools and under
different instructors. Other factors include the variability of the instructors'
backgrounds and grading practices between the three schools involved in the study.
Limitations of this nature are present in any study where more than one teacher is
involved regardless of a change of institution. These differences have been de-emphasized
in that instructors of these institutions gained a large portion of their background and
were in close association with one another during a National Science Foundation Institute
the summer of 1971. |
| Limitations of the Study: |
1. Implications of this study may not be applicable to some vocational
agriculture departments because of the selective sampling of schools.
2. There were a limited number of less advantaged students in the classes chosen to test
the curriculum.
3. There were a limited number of students in the study who were from ethnic groups other
than Caucasian.
Definitions need to be included when terms are used in a particular
context or with a special meaning for this study. Also technical terms or terms peculiar
to the study should be defined.
Example Of Definitions
| The following definitions of terms are furnished to provide, as nearly as possible,
clear and concise meanings of terms as used in this study: |
| Behavioral Objective - Clear, concise statement of the expected outcome of instruction
in terms of observable student behavior. |
| Student Recall - Ability of the student to respond correctly to questions about the unit
immediately following the last period of instruction. |
| Student Retention - Ability of the student to respond correctly to questions about the
unit of instruction when tested 28 days following the last period of instruction. |
| Specific Objectives - An explicitly stated behavioral objective necessary for attainment
of the terminal objective. |
| Terminal Objective - A behavioral objective which denotes the expected outcome of a unit
of instruction. |
| Unit of Instruction - Sequence of periods of instruction forming an effective whole. |
| The following terms and definitions were relevant and added clarity and understanding to
this study: |
| Analytic Skill - To identify simple figures hidden in a complex field: to use the
critical element of a problem in a different way. Field dependent people find it difficult
to overcome the influence of the surrounding field or to separate an element from its
context. Field independent people do not. They can attend to the familiar object without
reliance on the prevailing field (Jenkins, et al., 1990). |
| Field Dependent Learning Style - Perception is strongly dominated by the surrounding
field; perceive globally; more difficulty solving problems (Cano, et al., 1992). |
| Field Independent Learning Style - Perceives items separately from the surrounding
field; perceive analytically; promote problem-solving, critical thinking, and the inquiry
approach to learning (Cano, et al., 1992). |
Examples Of Scope
| The scope of this study included: |
1. Four schools which have two vocational agriculture instructors and
to which student teachers from the Oklahoma State University Agricultural Education
Department were assigned for the 1972 spring semester.
2. Junior and senior students enrolled in vocational agriculture and agricultural
mechanics classes.
3. A single unit of instruction - "Fundamentals of Electricity."
| The scope: |
1. The study dealt with only the following personality characteristics:
achievement-conformity, achievement-independence, aggression, anxiety level, autonomy,
communality, intellectual efficiency, depression, flexibility, impulse expression,
interest, outlook, psychopathic deviate, responsibility, and self-acceptance,
2. The only subjects selected were those enrolled in Lincoln High School, St. Louis,
Missouri.
3. The subjects selected were only of the hard core nature.
4. The study was limited to a measurement which could be administered in a limited time
interval of fifty minutes. The time interval was limited due to the number of sessions to
be conducted and the length of class session.
5. The questions asked were only in areas that were considered common to the student.
SELF ASSESSMENT
To assess your ability to accomplish the objectives, write the
components of the introductory chapter following these guidelines. Make sure to include:
Title
Background Introduction/Theoretical Construct
Problem
Purpose
Objectives (Questions or Hypotheses)
Assumptions
Limitations
Definitions
Scope
         
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